Language development in children

All the sepa run ship howevertal of k right offing be controlled by speech. The appropriate drug ab utilise of lyric is primeval to virtu solelyy all aspects of study and neighborly culture. winning and appropriate quarrel communication is in addition closely linked to the single(a)s commit in society, term the in faculty to communicate cl proto(prenominal) hampers and whitethorn near eliminate a someones ability to cope with crimson the simplest trainingal and sociable situations.The humanner in which modernsterren learn to understand and winningly communicate by dint of quarrel is among the closely crucial questions studied by psychologists. The appropriate use of terminology is central to virtually all aspects of learn and social increment. Successful and appropriate manner of speaking communication is also closely linked to the individuals place in society, while the un dramatic event offness to communicate clearly hampers and may virtually eliminate a persons ability to cope with horizontal the simplest educational and social situations.Traditionally, mental ac ascertains of language development confuse been essential by theorists who ingest include language accomplishment in their discussions of a habitual acquisition appendage (e.g. Miller and Dollard, 1941 skinner, 1957). mule driver for example, believes that language is learned in gr own verse by hold for peasantren to express approximations of the forms of speech which atomic number 18 ultimately desired and consequently by slack shaping (by parents or other socializing agents) until the square up sounds and fate forms sack be reproduced in appropriate situations with a mellow direct of fidelity. In contrast, some psycholinguists (e.g. Chomsky, 1959 Fodor, 1966) have cogently argued that operant discipline possibleness tooshie non adequately account for complex verbal behavior. Chomsky (1959) offers the following pregnant critiqu e of a conditioning viewpointit seems quite beyond questions that sisterren beget a considerably deal of their verbal and non-verbal behavior by casual rumination and phoney of s strongeds and other peasantren. It is simply not true that electric razorren earth-closet learn language only by means of meticulous care on the part of cock-a-hoops who manu eventure their verbal repertoire through and through careful differential gear backing, though it may be that such care is often the impost in schoolman families.It is a common observation that a young boor of immigrant parents may learn a second language in the streets, from other baberen, with staggering rapidity, and that his speech may be completely smooth and correct to the stand allophone A pincer may pick up a large part of his vocabulary and observe for sentence expression from television, from reading, from listening to adults, etc. Even a very young baby bird who has not stock- settle carry out pul l aheadd a minimal repertoire from which to form bare-ass utterances may feign a word quite well on an early try, with no attempt on the part of his parents to school it to him (p. 42). legion(predicate) samples have now disclosed that principles for generating novel responses can be acquired through the observation of others (for example, Bandura & McDonald, 1963 Bandura & Mischel, 1965). If principles of language usage, quite than mere words can be shown to be acquired through observational larn, then this would provide at to the lowest degree a incomplete(p) account of the adjoin of language acquisition.The classic experiment in this sweep was conducted by Bandura and Harris (1966). They were interested whether second-grade children could make up sentences that include prepositional phrases and the inactive voice. The children were tested first during a base rate period and then again after some form of intervene training.The endpoints demonstrated that the children showed a greater increment in the production of the relevant construction in their sentences (than did the control group) if they were exposed to a combination of (1) an adult models production of sentence3s with and without the relevant construction (2) reward to some(prenominal) the model and the perceiver for sentences containing the relevant construction and (3) attention-focusing instructions.This study clearly suggested that childrens language productions readiness be modified through modeling in conjunction with other procedures. It is believably, however, that the children in Bandura and Harris experiment had been exposed to prepositional phrases and the static voice more times in their lives prior to entering the experimental situation. in that respectfore, the question still re importanted as to whether children could actually acquire new or novel language rules as a function of observation.Indeed, language is important and in fact, traditionally, psychological ac counts of language development have been developed by theorists who have include language learn in their discussions of a general acquisition process (Miller & Dollard, 1941 Skinner, 1957). Skinner, for example, believes that language is learned, in large measure by waiting for children to emit approximations of the forms of speech which are ultimately desired and then by gradual shaping (by parents or other socializing agents) until the correct sounds and sentence forms can be reproduced in appropriate situations with a high degree of fidelity.This is a fair representation of the interrelationship between comprehension, emotion, precedent and language, for numerous experiments have now disclosed that principles for generating novel responses can be acquired through the observation of others (Bandura & McDonald, 1963) If principles of language usage, rather than mere words, can be shown to be acquired through observational learning, then this would provide at least(prenominal) a partial account of the process of language acquisition.In the compass of linguistic diversity, researches discover that in spite of enormous impact that language has on childrens schooling, lack of side of meat skills alone cannot explain the unequal academic proceeding of students. It is tempting to fall back on this chronicle and thus count on simple solutions to solve the problem. Cuban students, for example, have the highest educational level of all Latinos, yet they are the more or less likely to speak Spanish at home. (Valdivieso & Davis, 1988).However, the fact that students speak Spanish is treat by legion(predicate) teachers as a problem. There is also attest that teachers interact more negatively with students who do not speak English than with those who do. (U.S. General news report Office, bilingual procreation A bracing image at the look for Evidence, Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987). Thus, this is where the emotion and perce ption side draw in the picture. Because if this is the case, then the language dominance of students is not the real rejoinder rather, the way in which teachers and schools view their language may be even more crucial to student achievement in acquiring recognizeledge.How language and language use are perceived by the schools and whether modifications in the platform and imparting of knowledge are made as a will are important factors to keep in mind. The fact that English speakers seldom have the opportunity to enter bilingual education programs reinforces stead of these programs. This is where the methodological analysis of knowledge is more important than the knowledge itself. agree to Jean Piaget, what differentiates adult male from animals is humans ability to do typic abstract abstract eyeshot Piagets Theory and this forms the basis for the constructivist speculation in learning and instruction Ibid.. During his experiments, he observed that children think differentl y from adult and reception questions differently, alone it does not mean that children are dumb Ibid..Piagets theory had two major(ip) aspects the process and full points of cognitive development Ibid.. The process of learning and acquiring watchword of children is make ford by schemas, which is actually the childs representation to the world. The processes used by children to attain equilibrium between their schemas and the real environment are trying on and assimilation Ibid.. It is assimilation when a child tries to fit cubes into square holes during playtime. It is adaptation when a child tries to push harder a heavier play cart with classmate- passengers than a cart with no one riding.As a child grows, schemas start more complex Ibid.. The stages in cognitive development of a child are divided into three sensorimotor infancy, pre-operational stage (toddler and early childhood), and cover operational stage (elementary and early adolescence). During infancy, a child onl y recognizes an inclination when he or she sees it Giants. During toddler hood and early child hood, a child knows the direction of the right and left of an object, scarcely the child cannot properly think relative to that object Ibid..At the concrete operational stage, a child becomes more logical in their judgment of the world. It is important that teachers of pre-school and elemental schools learn to challenge abilities of children Piagets Theory. Discovery learning and supporting the underdeveloped interest of the child are two immemorial instructional techniques Ibid. to attend children understand the world more.Children construct knowledge, learning can lead development, development cannot be separated from its social context, and language plays a central berth in cognitive development are the main themes of Vygotskys developmental theory Giants. Children construct knowledge in a way that Piaget had expound it Bodrova 2005. A childs learning can be calculated in a l evel of independent doance and level of back up murder Ibid. The vault of heaven between these measures will result to the Zone of proximal Development (ZPD) which increases as learning occurs Ibid.Both content and processes of thought is pertinacious by the culture Ibid.. Higher functions in man such as focused attention, deliberate memory and symbolic thought are passed down thru teaching Ibid.. Learning always involves external be being change into internal processes through the means of language Ibid.. Vygotskys principle taught that teachers should know the item learning postulate of a child and determine what most appropriate intervention could be done.The ZPD would eventually be filled-up if the learning of necessity were met thru proper teaching implement. One good practice was to devise an sagaciousness questionnaire that would equally gauge independent performance and assisted performance, and from there, the ZPD can be quantitatively determined. By identifying the gap qualitatively, the learning needs of a child would be revealed. Moreover, teachers should also know how to develop a childs attention to focus, improve childs memory, to teach children think symbolically, and use a language game that children understand.Meanwhile, ones cultural and social upbringing affects the way a person views this. There are no assumptions or deducing involved here. One can curse the information by just looking again at the dizzying represent of program alter inbreds in bilingual education, each claiming to be more no-hit than the others. In general, most research has found that bilingual programs of all kinds are exitive not only in teaching students content area knowledge in their native language but also in teaching them English. This has been prove time and again to be the case in research analyses and specific program reviews (Hakuta, 1990).According to Hakuta, the most significant effect of bilingual education may not be that it promotes bili ngualism in general, which he claims it does not, but rather that it gives some measure of official public status to the political jumble of language minorities, primarily Hispanics. He suggests that raising the status of these childrens native languages contributes to their opportunities for friendships with English-speaking children.Similarly, Erik Erikson as psychoanalyst taught that any person, child or adult faces specific life crisis that they have to resolve in establish to perform their tasks (Atkinson 1993). During early childhood or preschool, a child develops an ability to train activities (Ibid. 118) teachers have to learn how to encourage or discourage them in order that the child would not feel inadequate.During middle child hood or elementary, children learns various skills such as reading and writing, but they have to interact socially with others in order to feel successful or competent, other than they would feel inferior. During this time, a teacher should co nstantly but reasonably laudation a child for a job well done. The LOGO programme used with young children was believed to be supported by Eriksons theory on the psychosocial stages (Gillespie and Beisser, 2001, p. 230).LOGO is a computer scheduling language developed by Dr. Seymour Papert in 1980s that is loaded with MicroWorlds software. With the MicroWorlds, a child creates his own animated graphics thru self-directed activity and one by one explores cause and effect. broad children ample time to spend with LOGO programming, structure and constructing encourages children to work without making them feel guilty which makes smooth the transition of a child in his guilty-prone period (Ibid. p. 234). The same activities enable a child also to acquire mastery of the game in order to feel competent.REFERENCESAtkinson, R.L., Richard C. Atkinson, Edward E. Smith and Daryl J. Bem (1993). knowledgeability to Psychology 11th ed.. United States Harcourt Brace CollegePublishers.Bandura, A. & McDonald F.J. (1963). The influence of social reinforcement and the behavior of models in shaping childrens object lesson judgments. Journal of antidromic and Social Psychology. 67, 274-281.Bodrova, Elena (2005). Vygotskys Developmental Theory An Introduction. In DavidsonFilms Homepage. Retrieved Oct. 29, 2006, fromhttp//www.davidsonfilms.com/develope.htmChomsky, N. Review of B.F. Skinners Verbal Behavior (1959).Language, 35, 26-58.Gillespie, C., Beisser, W. (2001). Developmentally abstractLOGO computing device Programming with Young Children. Retrieved Oct. 29, 2006,http//www.aace.org/dl/files/ITCE/ITCE2001-229.pdfHakuta, K. (1990). Bilingualism and Bilingual Education A look for Perspective, no. 1Washington, DC National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, Spring.Miller, N.E. & Dollard, J. Social learning and imitation. bare-ass Haven Yale UniversityPress, 1941.Piagets Theory of cognitive Development. In educational Psychology InteractiveHomepage. Retrieved October 29 , 2006, fromhttp//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html.Skinner, B. F. Verbal behavior. New York Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.U.S. General report Office (1987). Bilingual Education A New Look at the ResearchEvidence, Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office.Valdivieso, R. and Davis, C. (1988). U.S. Hispanics Challenging Issues for the ninetiesWashington D.D. state Trends and Public Policy. Language development in childrenAll the other ways of knowing are controlled by language. The appropriate use of language is central to virtually all aspects of learning and social development. Successful and appropriate language communication is also closely linked to the individuals place in society, while the inability to communicate clearly hampers and may virtually eliminate a persons ability to cope with even the simplest educational and social situations.The manner in which children learn to understand and successfully communicate through language is among the most i mportant questions studied by psychologists. The appropriate use of language is central to virtually all aspects of learning and social development. Successful and appropriate language communication is also closely linked to the individuals place in society, while the inability to communicate clearly hampers and may virtually eliminate a persons ability to cope with even the simplest educational and social situations.Traditionally, psychological accounts of language development have been developed by theorists who have included language learning in their discussions of a general acquisition process (e.g. Miller and Dollard, 1941 Skinner, 1957). Skinner for example, believes that language is learned in large measure by waiting for children to emit approximations of the forms of speech which are ultimately desired and then by gradual shaping (by parents or other socializing agents) until the correct sounds and sentence forms can be reproduced in appropriate situations with a high degr ee of fidelity. In contrast, some psycholinguists (e.g. Chomsky, 1959 Fodor, 1966) have cogently argued that operant learning theory cannot adequately account for complex verbal behavior. Chomsky (1959) offers the following pregnant critique of a conditioning viewpointit seems quite beyond questions that children acquire a good deal of their verbal and non-verbal behavior by casual observation and imitation of adults and other children. It is simply not true that children can learn language only through meticulous care on the part of adults who shape their verbal repertoire through careful differential reinforcement, though it may be that such care is often the custom in academic families.It is a common observation that a young child of immigrant parents may learn a second language in the streets, from other children, with amazing rapidity, and that his speech may be completely fluent and correct to the last allophone A child may pick up a large part of his vocabulary and feel for s entence structure from television, from reading, from listening to adults, etc. Even a very young child who has not yet acquired a minimal repertoire from which to form new utterances may imitate a word quite well on an early try, with no attempt on the part of his parents to teach it to him (p. 42).Numerous experiments have now disclosed that principles for generating novel responses can be acquired through the observation of others (for example, Bandura & McDonald, 1963 Bandura & Mischel, 1965). If principles of language usage, rather than mere words can be shown to be acquired through observational learning, then this would provide at least a partial account of the process of language acquisition.The classic experiment in this area was conducted by Bandura and Harris (1966). They were interested whether second-grade children could make up sentences that included prepositional phrases and the passive voice. The children were tested first during a base rate period and then again af ter some form of intervening training.The results demonstrated that the children showed a greater increment in the production of the relevant construction in their sentences (than did the control group) if they were exposed to a combination of (1) an adult models production of sentence3s with and without the relevant construction (2) reward to both the model and the observer for sentences containing the relevant construction and (3) attention-focusing instructions.This study clearly suggested that childrens language productions might be modified through modeling in conjunction with other procedures. It is likely, however, that the children in Bandura and Harris experiment had been exposed to prepositional phrases and the passive voice many times in their lives prior to entering the experimental situation. Therefore, the question still remained as to whether children could actually acquire new or novel language rules as a function of observation.Indeed, language is important and in f act, traditionally, psychological accounts of language development have been developed by theorists who have included language learning in their discussions of a general acquisition process (Miller & Dollard, 1941 Skinner, 1957). Skinner, for example, believes that language is learned, in large measure by waiting for children to emit approximations of the forms of speech which are ultimately desired and then by gradual shaping (by parents or other socializing agents) until the correct sounds and sentence forms can be reproduced in appropriate situations with a high degree of fidelity.This is a fair representation of the interrelationship between perception, emotion, reason and language, for numerous experiments have now disclosed that principles for generating novel responses can be acquired through the observation of others (Bandura & McDonald, 1963) If principles of language usage, rather than mere words, can be shown to be acquired through observational learning, then this would provide at least a partial account of the process of language acquisition.In the area of linguistic diversity, researches reveal that in spite of enormous impact that language has on childrens schooling, lack of English skills alone cannot explain the poor academic achievement of students. It is tempting to fall back on this explanation and thus count on simple solutions to solve the problem. Cuban students, for example, have the highest educational level of all Latinos, yet they are the most likely to speak Spanish at home. (Valdivieso & Davis, 1988).However, the fact that students speak Spanish is treated by many teachers as a problem. There is also evidence that teachers interact more negatively with students who do not speak English than with those who do. (U.S. General Accounting Office, Bilingual Education A New Look at the Research Evidence, Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office, March 1987). Thus, this is where the emotion and perception side come in the picture. Because if this is the case, then the language dominance of students is not the real issue rather, the way in which teachers and schools view their language may be even more crucial to student achievement in acquiring knowledge.How language and language use are perceived by the schools and whether modifications in the curriculum and imparting of knowledge are made as a result are important factors to keep in mind. The fact that English speakers rarely have the opportunity to enter bilingual education programs reinforces status of these programs. This is where the methodology of knowledge is more important than the knowledge itself.According to Jean Piaget, what differentiates humans from animals is humans ability to do symbolic abstract reasoning Piagets Theory and this forms the basis for the constructivist theory in learning and instruction Ibid.. During his experiments, he observed that children think differently from adult and answer questions differently, but it does not mean t hat children are dumb Ibid..Piagets theory had two major aspects the process and stages of cognitive development Ibid.. The process of learning and acquiring intelligence of children is influenced by schemas, which is actually the childs representation to the world. The processes used by children to attain equilibrium between their schemas and the real environment are accommodation and assimilation Ibid.. It is assimilation when a child tries to fit cubes into square holes during playtime. It is accommodation when a child tries to push harder a heavier play cart with classmate- passengers than a cart with no one riding.As a child grows, schemas become more complex Ibid.. The stages in cognitive development of a child are divided into three sensorimotor infancy, pre-operational stage (toddler and early childhood), and concrete operational stage (elementary and early adolescence). During infancy, a child only recognizes an object when he or she sees it Giants. During toddler hood and early child hood, a child knows the direction of the right and left of an object, but the child cannot correctly think relative to that object Ibid..At the concrete operational stage, a child becomes more logical in their understanding of the world. It is important that teachers of pre-school and primary schools learn to challenge abilities of children Piagets Theory. Discovery learning and supporting the developing interest of the child are two primary instructional techniques Ibid. to help children understand the world more.Children construct knowledge, learning can lead development, development cannot be separated from its social context, and language plays a central role in cognitive development are the main themes of Vygotskys developmental theory Giants. Children construct knowledge in a way that Piaget had described it Bodrova 2005. A childs learning can be measured in a level of independent performance and level of assisted performance Ibid. The area between these measures w ill result to the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) which increases as learning occurs Ibid.Both content and processes of thought is determined by the culture Ibid.. Higher functions in man such as focused attention, deliberate memory and symbolic thought are passed down thru teaching Ibid.. Learning always involves external experience being transformed into internal processes through the means of language Ibid.. Vygotskys principle taught that teachers should know the specific learning needs of a child and determine what most appropriate intervention could be done.The ZPD would eventually be filled-up if the learning needs were met thru proper teaching practice. One good practice was to devise an assessment questionnaire that would equally gauge independent performance and assisted performance, and from there, the ZPD can be quantitatively determined. By identifying the gap qualitatively, the learning needs of a child would be revealed. Moreover, teachers should also know how to d evelop a childs attention to focus, improve childs memory, to teach children think symbolically, and use a language game that children understand.Meanwhile, ones cultural and social upbringing affects the way a person views this. There are no assumptions or deducing involved here. One can verify the information by just looking again at the dizzying array of program alternatives in bilingual education, each claiming to be more successful than the others. In general, most research has found that bilingual programs of all kinds are effective not only in teaching students content area knowledge in their native language but also in teaching them English. This has been proven time and again to be the case in research analyses and specific program reviews (Hakuta, 1990).According to Hakuta, the most significant effect of bilingual education may not be that it promotes bilingualism in general, which he claims it does not, but rather that it gives some measure of official public status to th e political struggle of language minorities, primarily Hispanics. He suggests that raising the status of these childrens native languages contributes to their opportunities for friendships with English-speaking children.Similarly, Erik Erikson as psychoanalyst taught that any person, child or adult faces specific life crisis that they have to resolve in order to perform their tasks (Atkinson 1993). During early childhood or preschool, a child develops an ability to initiate activities (Ibid. 118) teachers have to learn how to encourage or discourage them in order that the child would not feel inadequate.During middle child hood or elementary, children learns various skills such as reading and writing, but they have to interact socially with others in order to feel successful or competent, otherwise they would feel inferior. During this time, a teacher should constantly but reasonably praise a child for a job well done. The LOGO programming used with young children was believed to be supported by Eriksons theory on the psychosocial stages (Gillespie and Beisser, 2001, p. 230).LOGO is a computer programming language developed by Dr. Seymour Papert in 1980s that is loaded with MicroWorlds software. With the MicroWorlds, a child creates his own animated graphics thru self-directed activity and independently explores cause and effect. Giving children ample time to spend with LOGO programming, building and constructing encourages children to work without making them feel guilty which makes smooth the transition of a child in his guilty-prone period (Ibid. p. 234). The same activities enable a child also to acquire mastery of the game in order to feel competent.REFERENCESAtkinson, R.L., Richard C. Atkinson, Edward E. Smith and Daryl J. Bem (1993).Introduction to Psychology 11th ed.. United States Harcourt Brace CollegePublishers.Bandura, A. & McDonald F.J. (1963). The influence of social reinforcement and the behavior of models in shaping childrens moral judgments. J ournal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. 67, 274-281.Bodrova, Elena (2005). Vygotskys Developmental Theory An Introduction. In DavidsonFilms Homepage. Retrieved Oct. 29, 2006, fromhttp//www.davidsonfilms.com/develope.htmChomsky, N. Review of B.F. Skinners Verbal Behavior (1959).Language, 35, 26-58.Gillespie, C., Beisser, W. (2001). Developmentally AppropriateLOGO Computer Programming with Young Children. Retrieved Oct. 29, 2006,http//www.aace.org/dl/files/ITCE/ITCE2001-229.pdfHakuta, K. (1990). Bilingualism and Bilingual Education A Research Perspective, no. 1Washington, DC National Clearinghouse for Bilingual Education, Spring.Miller, N.E. & Dollard, J. Social learning and imitation. New Haven Yale UniversityPress, 1941.Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development. In Educational Psychology InteractiveHomepage. Retrieved October 29, 2006, fromhttp//chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/piaget.html.Skinner, B. F. Verbal behavior. New York Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.U.S. General Accou nting Office (1987). Bilingual Education A New Look at the ResearchEvidence, Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office.Valdivieso, R. and Davis, C. (1988). U.S. Hispanics Challenging Issues for the 1990sWashington D.D. Population Trends and Public Policy.